Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： One of the long-standing state among scholars researching the psychology of Creativity is that while western theories stress the importance of big-C, little-C, the process, the person, the product, the press and other concepts of Creativity from an ever-expanding variety of disciplines. But these systems are various and complicated, making man difficult grasp the point of the problem. In order to analyze the scope of application of each theory (mainly including Kaufman’ Four-C Model, Csikszentmihalyi’s Systems Model of Creativity, Sternberg’s Propulsion Theory of Creative Contributions, Amabile’s Componential Model of Creativity, and Gl?veanu’s 5A Theory of Creativity), we summarized these systematic theories of creativity from two directions, forming a rectangular coordinate system that we called the Galaxy Developmental Model for it is analogous to the process of galaxy development. One direction is perspective of development (from Mini-C to Little-C, then Pro-C, and finally Big-C); Another is perspective of connection (from the cognitive neural basis of creativity to the process of creativity…finally the socio-cultural aspect of creativity). We are trying to provide a method allowing us to understand each theory clearly and to establish systems view of creativity, as well as paving a way for further research and application.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Cognitive control is essential in conflict processing. Most related theories elucidated the mechanism via integrating both the enhancement of task-relevant stimuli and inhibition of task-irrelevant stimuli, which has been challenged by recent studies. We reviewed the major debates on whether enhancement or inhibition might be the mechanism and their empirical evidences, and then argued that conflict resolution mechanisms might not be constant, but depend on conflict situation and individual state. Future studies could pay more attention to reveal the influence factors of cognitive control, exploring cognitive processing strategies and doing cognitive training, which may benefit the intervention treatment of the cognitive function disorders.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Recent advances on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) demonstrated sex differences in the brain function. However, no standard on fMRI signal’s frequency division limited further biologically plausible explanation of these observations. In this work, we proposed a fast-multi-dimensional ensemble empirical mode decomposition to extract their multi-scale features of fMRI signal. We found that: this method can perform adaptive frequency allocation for the resting-state fMRI signal, whereby the built multi-scale function network in the frequency brain of 0.06 ~ 0.10 Hz showed significant sex differences regarding its connectivity; males had strong functional connectivity primarily within the limbic network and ventral attention network whereas females presented their strong functional connectivity mainly related to the visual network, ventral attention network and frontoparietal control network. These findings present a new method for the analysis of functional MRI images and provided brain imaging evidence on sex differences in functional connectomics.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Public awareness of environmental issues and engagement in environmental protection has been greatly improved with the rapid economic development. As a result, the deployment of projects with potential impacts on environment and human societies faces substantial challenge from the public. To ensure the success of such projects, receiving only government approval and meeting legal and regulation requirements is no longer enough. Public acceptance becomes essential, that is to acquire a social licence to operate (SLO). Projects without the SLO can be faced with great risks and financial loss. Although having gained widespread attention in mining, chemical industries and other related fields, the concept of SLO has gained attention from psychologists quite recently. The present article reviews the origin and measurement of the concept of SLO, as well as the approaches to obtain and maintain a SLO. We further highlight the fundamental drivers of SLO and the implications for policy makers. Future directions are discussed to address the challenges regarding the measurement and acquisition of SLO.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Richard Thaler was awarded the 2017 Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel for his contributions to behavioral economics. Based on bounded rationality, procrastination, loss aversion, and self-control, Thaler proposed the “Save More Tomorrow” plan that nudge employees to save more for their retirement by increasing the amount saved with every salary raised. Starting at the beginning, Thaler suggested that automatic enrollment can be used as the default option for employees to increase 401(k) participation. At the later stage, automatic escalation, which automatically allocates a fraction of the employees’ future pay increase to 401(k) contribution, is proposed to nudge the increase of contribution rates. The SMarT program, which was labeled as libertarian paternalism, can result in not only increased participation and contribution rates, but also the broad diversification of portfolios. The SMarT program profoundly affected policy in England, New Zealand, and other countries in which governments have established policies to make automatic enrollment the default option for employees to participate in retirement savings plan. Researchers have also been inspired to investigate the mechanism of retirement savings behavior. We first analyze the present status given that the three primary sources of retirement income are disproportionate in China. Then, we discuss and suggest nudge methods to incorporate behavioral economic insights, such as default option, framing effect, mental account and manipulating the “two-route loss” to “one-route loss” to promote retirement savings. Improvements to the participation and contribution rates can also be nudged by designing a plan and formulating a policy on retirement savings in China.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The positive effect of autonomous safety motivation on safety performance has received considerable attention; however, the mediating mechanism between motivation and safety performance has not been explored. The present proposal integrates self-determination theory and a multilevel motivational process to explore the effect of individual and team autonomous safety motivation on safety performance through safety goals, and the intervention effects of autonomy-supportive factors and job crafting on promoting autonomous safety motivation in the workplace. A longitudinal design, experiment as well as quasi-experiment including cognitive tests and questionnaires is proposed to test the model. The results can contribute to self-determination theory and safety research by deepening the understanding of the multilevel mechanism, and has practical implications for safety training and safety performance in high-risk organizations.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Depending on how closely it connects with environmental health, behavioral response as a result of air pollution can be classified into two types: direct behavior and social behavior (or spillover behavior). In this regard, this paper reviewed previous literature on how air pollution influences these two types of behaviors. Further, we summarized several mechanisms underlying these two behaviors. Specifically, the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Health Action Process Approach were proposed to model direct behavior; anxiety and ego depletion were proposed to predict social behavior. More comprehensive investigations into the behavioral mechanisms will benefit future designing of more effective measures against air pollution. Future researchers may consider adopting a longitudinal paradigm and conduct in-depth analyses of behavioral mechanisms, in order to improve individuals’ behaviors in response to risks.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： It is of great value to recognize concealed emotions for early warning of public security issues. Micro-expression is a vital channel to reveal concealed emotions. However, there are relatively few studies on concealed emotions, and micro-expressions are challenging to recognize because of their subtle magnitude and short duration. Existing Laboratory studies of micro-expression have few practical applications. Therefore, the perception and expression of concealed emotion should be systematically investigated by collecting micro-expression samples in an ecological situation, while synchronically collecting EEG signals for better labeling of micro-expressions. We spot and recognize concealed emotions mainly through micro-expressions, accompanied by face color analysis, gaze estimation, and contactless physiological signals measurement. Then, we verify and modify our system and method in two realistic public security related application scenarios: a Recognition Assistant System for the aggressive and suicidal behaviors of psychiatric patients and a Concealed Emotion Detection System for prisoners interview.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Time preference for health is omnipresent and important at both individual and national levels. For a long time, research in this field has been limited to following inter-temporal choice models and methods in the traditional monetary domain of time preference studies. Given the domain-specificity of time preference in the health domain, these indiscriminately theoretical models led to inconsistent measures and results in the field. In the past few decades, researchers in this field have focused on the behavioral consequences of time preference for health. Most studies reported that lower temporal discount rates and higher future time perspectives are positively related to health protection behaviors and negatively related to health risk behaviors. Researchers also found that features of both decision-making objects and decision makers are key impact factors for time preference for health. Future studies should develop theoretical models and measurements that are more suitable to the time preferences for health domain, identify the relationship between healthy behaviors and time preference, and investigate the mechanism underlying the decision-making process. Future researchers should also explore interventions for health behaviors and their application to formulation of healthcare policies.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Gender information is an important biological and social attribute of human beings. Rapid and accurate gender identification is of great significance to our survival and reproduction. Human gender processing is characterized by automation, stereotyping and asymmetry. It is influenced by gender processing subjects, other gender information, social category information, and higher-level cognitive regulation. Focusing on two main sources of gender information, namely faces and voices, research on the behavioral and neural mechanisms of gender processing were reviewed. In addition, a two-stage gender processing model was proposed, in which the early stage relates to a specific processing of the physical features aspect of gender information, and the later stage is a general processing of abstract gender information. Future research may focus on aspects of the systematic study of gender processing, gender classification and machine learning, and gender dimorphism, among others.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： As a fundamental mathematical skill, approximate arithmetic is one of the critical abilities in daily life to represent and operate on the numerosity of objects approximately. Investigating how arithmetic bias is formed and developed is important to understand the underlying mechanism of arithmetic operation. When performing arithmetic operations, individuals tend to overestimate outcomes in addition and underestimate outcomes in subtraction, such estimation bias is called the Operational Momentum (OM) effect. Currently there were three mainstream theoretical accounts (i.e., attentional shift account, heuristic account, compression account). The main differences among these three accounts are whether the spatial-numerical association is invoked and how deeply the numerical elements are processed. The attentional shift account, as the most recognized explanation mechanism, argues that the OM effect is due to spatial shifts of attention along the mental number line. When calculating and estimating numerosities, individuals first map the first operand onto the mental number line, then, according to the kind of the operation sign, the attentional focus was shifted to a new location on the mental number line with the distance of the representation of second operand on the mental number line. When performing mental arithmetic, the mental representation usually shifts positively on the mental number line along the direction of operation sign, therefore, the outcome is represented larger in addition and multiplication and smaller in subtraction and division (Katz & Knops, 2014; McCrink et al., 2007). The heuristic account is firstly used to explain the findings of the OM effect in infants, which assumes that individuals use intuitive operational logic and adopt a simple heuristic to solve the mathematical problems: addition indicates larger outcomes and subtraction indicates smaller outcomes. The compression account assumes that the OM effect is the result of the necessary compression and decompression process on the logarithmic compression of the mental number line. This account is still in the theoretical stage and needs more empirical work to verify. Furthermore, the three accounts are not mutually exclusive - some findings suggested the OM effect can be explained by multiple accounts.Early arithmetic is fundamental to the acquisition of complex mathematical concepts and advanced arithmetic operations. By reviewing recent findings of the OM effect in early development, we found many studies have demonstrated the OM effect in infants (Cassia et al., 2016, 2017; McCrink & Wynn, 2009), but it remained puzzled in later development as work in children have shown inconsistent findings. As age increases, research work with 6- to 7-year-old children observed an inverse OM effect (Knops et al., 2013), however, adult-consistent OM effect has been found in 7- to 12-year-old children and the OM effect monotonically increased with age (Jang & Cho, 2022; Pinheiro-Chagas et al., 2018). Together these show a U-shaped developmental trend in OM effect between preschoolers and school-age children. This trend may be related to the improvement of the mathematical ability and the maturation of the spatial attention. Specially, with the acquisition of the mathematical knowledge, preschool children’s mathematical ability would improve, the knowledge of the counting principle and other related mathematical concepts appear to influence the performance of the arithmetic computations. Meanwhile, the maturation of the spatial attention may influence the mapping of numerical representations onto the mental number line therefore influences the OM effect.Given the importance of the underlying mechanism of the OM effect on understanding the arithmetic operation in development, future research in developmental field should investigate: 1) the developmental trajectory of the OM effect with multiple paradigms and techniques; 2) the role of the Approximate Number System in the origin and development of the OM effect; 3) generalizability of the OM effect in complex arithmetic or even algebraic operations; 4) the joint effect of various factors (e.g., mathematical abilities and spatial attention) on the OM effect; and 5) the intervention for arithmetic bias.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Learning and memory are the foundation of individual survival and development. Improving learning and memory is the focus of psychology and neuroscience. Recently, many studies have revealed that rewards facilitate declarative memory, and the influence of reward on declarative memory has become a hot research topic. Rewards are related to the midbrain dopamine system, including areas such as the ventral tegmental area, the substantia nigra, and the ventral striatum, with dopamine as the relevant vital neurotransmitter. The hippocampus and adjacent cortices play an essential role in the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of declarative memory. The midbrain reward system and the memory system (i.e., the ventral tegmental area and hippocampus) are connected both structurally and functionally. Rewards can act on memory encoding and consolidation, thus promoting memory performance. During the encoding and consolidation stages, rewards promote memory via the interaction of various brain systems (i.e., the reward system, the attention control system, and the memory system). The impact of rewards during these two stages involves different cognitive processes and neural mechanisms. During the memory encoding stage, rewards affect both intentional and incidental memories. According to the intentional memory paradigm, participants are explicitly informed that a reward is contingent upon memory performance in a subsequent test when they encode the items. In this paradigm, this performance-dependent reward triggers the reward system and involves the attentional control system, and these two systems modulate the memory system, allocating more cognitive resources to reward-related items, thereby promoting memory with respect to these items. According to the incidental memory paradigm, rewards accompany some items during the encoding phase but are independent of memory performance regarding these items in the subsequent test. In this paradigm, participants are not aware of the subsequent memory test before they process the information; thus, the reward enhancement effect on memory can mainly be explained in terms of the interaction between the memory system and the reward system. However, even though participants do not intentionally allocate cognitive resources in this context, the rewarded items themselves automatically attract attention. Therefore, the influence of attention and the involvement of the attentional control system cannot be excluded entirely. During the memory consolidation stage, the addition of a reward also affects memory performance, and the influence of attention can be excluded entirely at this stage; thus, the enhancement effect on memory consolidation can be explained in terms of pure reward. During the consolidation stage, the hippocampal memory system reactivates the encoded content. The reward facilitates dopamine release, modulates the hippocampal processing of reward-related items, and enhances the reactivation of reward-related items, thus directly affecting memory performance without the involvement of the attentional control system. Future research should focus on the following three areas. First, rewards affect behavior not in terms of a simple and pure enhancement pattern but rather according to a complex pattern. The factors and mechanisms that impact the effect of rewards on memory must be clarified, and a more consummate model of the reward effect on memory should be developed to provide more accurate guidance for learning in real life (i.e., a model of when and how rewards should be applied in education). Second, only a few studies have investigated the effects of rewards during the memory consolidation and retrieval stages. More attention should be given to the effects of rewards during these two stages (i.e., the ways in which rewards affect consolidation during different states as well as memory retrieval and subsequent memory). Finally, most studies have investigated the effects of external rewards on memory, and future research should focus on the impacts of internal rewards on learning and memory. We should compare the behavioral patterns and neural mechanisms associated with the effects of internal and external rewards on memory and test the interaction effect of internal and external rewards on memory.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Spatial-numerical associations (SNAs), showing that small numbers have stronger associations with left space and large numbers have stronger associations with right space, are a hot topic in the field of cognitive psychology. An important index to explore SNAs is the spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect (i.e., faster responses to small numbers using left effectors, and the inverse for large numbers), which provides strong evidence for the existence of SNAs. Previous studies have verified the universality of the SNARC effect. This effect could be observed across a wide range of numbers, diversified materials, different sensory channels, different ways participants react, and various reaction indexes. Importantly, the SNARC effect is also flexible in direction and the processing stage at which it occurs. First, the direction of the SNARC effect is flexible. Previous studies showed that the direction of the SNARC effect could be influenced by different reading habits (e.g., left-to-right or right-to-left), varying ranges of numbers (e.g., 1~9, 0~4, and 4~9), different representations (e.g., ruler or alarm clock), serial position in working memory, and reference numbers for comparison. The mental number line, working memory account and other theories have been proposed to explain the directional flexibility of the SNARC effect. Second, the processing stage in which the SNARC effect occurs is flexible. Researchers have tried to determine the processing stage in which the SNARC effect occurs from three perspectives: the relationship between the SNARC effect and other effects occurring at different stages (e.g., the Simon effect, Stroop effect, numerical distance effect, and switch cost), changes in the SNARC effect in different response effectors (e.g., hand response and eye movement), and the event-related potentials (ERPs) components induced by the SNARC effect. Three views of the processing stage in which the SNARC effect occurs have been proposed, but the conclusions are still discordant. The first view supports that the SNARC effect occurs at the semantic representation stage, the second view supports that it occurs at the response selection stage, and some recent studies have proposed a third view that the SNARC effect occurs flexibly at both stages. This dispute may be caused by the following four reasons: (1) disparities in the comprehension of additive-factor logic, which led to indirect inference; (2) observation from a single point, which led to indirect inference; (3) different types of Simon effects were adopted as the measure index, which led to different results; and (4) different tasks were adopted, which led to different results. Combining the above reasons, a new two-stage processing (spatial representation of magnitude, spatial representation to response selection) model was proposed. This model distinguished the different processing pathways of magnitude information in the magnitude comparison task (task-relevant) and in the parity judgment task (task-irrelevant). Also, it was proposed that different interference factors acting on the two stages might be the core reason for the flexibility of the SNARC effect. This model covered and explained the flexible variation in the SNARC effect observed in most previous studies. Future research could focus on comparisons of different tasks and the adoption of various interference factors to verify the two-stage processing model and combine cognitive neuroscience technologies to further elucidate the neural mechanism underlying the flexibility of SNAs.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： In recent years, the nudging method of default options has been increasingly used to improve public behavior and increase the public approval of social policies. Default option setting is a tool of choice architecture. It involves setting a pre-selected option that takes advantage of people’s inertia, subtly increasing the likelihood that decision-makers choose this default option. Defaults are commonly framed in the opt-in system (without any default) and opt-out system (target option as a default). The frequencies at which the target option is of the target option is chosen are considerably higher in the latter, which is known as the default effect. Although a great number of studies have shown the default effect in various scenarios, the effectiveness of default nudge has been questioned by scholars and the public nowadays. For example, there are a series of studies that show that default option settings are ineffective or even counterproductive in promoting public behavior. Given the dispute on the effectiveness of the default nudge method, the current study aims to systematically examine how effective defaults are and whether their effectiveness varies across culture (Eastern culture vs. Western culture), domains (money-related domain, health-related domain, and environment-related domain), behavioral motives (benefits self vs. benefits others; whether there is real financial consequence of choice), and experiment characteristics (type of dependent variables, time of publication, sample size, and type of experiment). We conducted a literature search and meta-analysis of 56 articles, covering 92 default studies (pooled n = 112, 212, range = 16 ~ 19992) that fitted our inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis revealed that opt-out defaults lead to more pre-selected decisions than opt-in defaults do (d = 0.59, t = 10.12, 95% CI = [0.47, 0.71], p < 0.001), indicating that default nudging has a considerable effect. Further analysis showed two factors that could partially explain when the defaults’ effectiveness varies. First, moderating analysis showed that cultural background moderated the effect of default nudging: the effect of opt-out system under Western culture performed better than that under Eastern culture (b = 0.44, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.84], p = 0.027). Second, the moderating analysis also revealed the moderating effect of consumer choice and health choice. The nudging effectiveness of the default option settings was relatively better in the field of consumer choice (b = 0.43, 95% CI = [0.15, 0.70], p = 0.002), also somewhat effective in the field of pro-environmental choice (b = -0.32, 95% CI = [-0.66, 0.02], p = 0.067), and weakest in the field of health domain (b = -0.32, 95% CI = [-0.42, 0.10], p = 0.233). Lately, the default effect was not influenced by motivational factors or experiment characteristics. In conclusion, the current work-integrated findings in previous default-related studies and answered the questions regarding how effective the defaults are and when their effectiveness varies. The present meta-analysis covered 21 more studies than previous analyses and 5 more studies based on the Asian samples. In the 92 studies included in this meta-analysis, most showed a positive effect of default nudge on people’s behavioral change, and only a few studies found no significant or negative effects. The total default effect in our analysis was slightly lower than the results reported by Jachimowicz et al. (2018), but it still showed a medium-sized effect, indicating that the default nudge is indeed effective in promoting behavioral changes. Our finding provides a new conclusion for the studies of the effectiveness of the default effect, and reveals the moderating effect of cultural background for the first time, which may help us to better understand whether the defaults are effective and when to use the defaults.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Micro-expressions are facial movements that are extremely short and not easily perceived, often generated under high pressure. Micro-expressions can reveal the individual's hidden real emotions and are important non-verbal communication clues, widely used in lies detection and other fields. Due to the difficulty of eliciting, collecting, and labeling micro-expression samples, micro-expression-related research becomes a typical small-sample-size (SSS) problem. In order to enlighten the application of micro-expression analysis technology in complex real-life scenarios such as national security and clinical consultation, this study focuses on the SSS problem and proposes a micro-expression spotting method based on human attention mechanism with multi-branching self-supervised learning through the intersection of computer and psychology. First, this study conducts an exploration related to attentional resources based on the cognitive mechanisms of psychological micro-expressions. A behavioral-experimental paradigm combining eye-movement techniques and a presentation-judgment paradigm with subthreshold emotion priming effects was used to examine the cognitive mechanisms of selective attention allocation in micro-expression recognition and to refine the distinct regions of interest in human recognition of micro-expressions. Thus, the model is effectively and directly enabled to acquire important micro-expression features from the input information. Then the relevant attention modules are further generated from multi-dimensions (time domain, spatial domain, and channel domain) by the deep learning network to improve the performance of the network in extracting micro-expression features with the limited sample size. Second, this study proposes a multi-branching self-supervised learning method based on the human attention mechanism for micro-expression spotting. Training in many unlabeled video samples for the pre-text tasks enables the model to extract features from regions of interest of micro-expressions, including structural and detail features and video dynamic change patterns. Thus, the limitation caused by the SSS problem could be avoided. Finally, the current data released for micro-expressions are video samples and do not include the corresponding depth information. This study will carry out a depth information-based micro-expression spotting method based on the first micro-expression database that includes image depth information being created by our research team. It enables self-supervised learning to learn the corresponding action patterns from the geometric information of the scene. This research will achieve theoretical and technological breakthroughs in the field of automatic micro-expression spotting, improve the accuracy and reliability, and lay the foundation for the application of micro-expression spotting in realistic and complex scenarios. Second, it can achieve the data augmentation of micro-expression samples by mining micro-expression clips in unlabeled videos. Thus, the micro-expression small sample problem could be solved, and the performance improvement of traditional supervised micro-expression spotting methods could be improved.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： As an editorial for Acta Psychologica Sinica’s special column, this paper provides a concise overview of the nudge concept and its progress. The necessity of the concept is analyzed, and the main methods and fields of application are summarized. The effects of the concept on the promotion of people’s health, wealth, and happiness are elucidated, and the related disputes are clarified. Several suggestions that may help researchers in carrying out nudge research are also derived. We briefly draw the outlines for several papers in this special column and discuss the outlook for how nudge research should begin in China with the goal of attracting psychologists to devote to nudge research.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： One of the most imperative issues in developmental research on social cognition is whether young children selectively trust informants' testimonies and revise their beliefs based on those testimonies. Previous research has shown that both the nature of the information and the traits of informants affect young children's selective trust and belief revision. However, the role that contradictory information may play in young children's selective trust and belief revision has yet to be examined. The present study examined Chinese preschoolers' selective trust and belief revision in situations in which their beliefs were contradicted by information provided by a familiar informant (the mother).The present study adopted the conflicting sources paradigm. Testimonies about hybrid pictures with different perceptual cues (the 50%-50% hybrids task vs the 75%-25% hybrids task) were presented to 74 4- to 6-year-old preschoolers, to investigate young children's selective trust and belief revision. Participants heard two informants (the mother and the stranger) name the hybrid differently. In all tasks, the stranger’s naming was more consistent with the perceptual cues. Children were asked about their own naming (What animal is this?), whom they would like to ask (mother or stranger?), whom to believe and the endorsement question (What animal do you think this is?).The results showed that children's selective trust and belief revision are influenced by the degree of conflict between mother's testimonies and perceptual evidence. In the low conflicting situation (50%-50% hybrids task), children are more inclined to ask for and explicitly trust the mother's testimony than in the high conflicting situation (75%-25% hybrids task). Furthermore, in the low conflicting situation, older children are more likely to revise their beliefs than younger children; whereas in the high conflicting situation, older children are more hesitant to revise their beliefs than younger children. The findings indicate that older children are more flexible in selective trust and belief revision. They are better able to factor the available perceptual cues into their consideration of the adult's testimony.In summary, 4- to 6-year-old preschoolers' selective trust and belief revision are influenced by the degree of conflict between others' testimonies and perceptual evidence. In high conflicting situations, they typically refuse to ask for and endorse the testimonies provided by the familiar informant, or to revise their beliefs. The results of the present study demonstrate that young children are able to distinguish between different degrees of conflict. When the mother's testimony conflicted dramatically with the young children's existing beliefs, older Chinese preschoolers in our study tended to distrust the mother and refused to revise their beliefs.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Risky choice (RC) and intertemporal choice (IC) are two types of common decisions that are vital to human’s everyday life. RC and IC share similarities regarding theoretical development, behavioral effects, and neural basis. One critical challenge is that, although previous studies have revealed that RC and IC involve similar cognitive processes, results are mixed regarding what the exact mechanism might be. The mainstream discounting model hypothesizes that both RC and IC follow a compensatory and alternative-based rule. However, other models suggest that RC and IC commonly involve non-compensatory and attribute-based processing. Moreover, prior studies primarily based their findings on outcome data and few have attempted to determine whether RC and IC shared a common decision process at the cognitive computational level. To fill this gap, the present study adopts a systematic approach to disentangle the exact mechanism of RC and IC. We considered two well-studied behavioral effects, namely, certainty effect of RC and immediacy effect of IC, respectively, and compared their underlying local and holistic process characteristics by using eye-tracking technique. Besides, we employed hierarchical Bayesian modeling to assess whether alternative- or attribute-based models better fit both RC and IC. We designed a 2×2 within-subject paradigm, with the choice task (RC vs. IC) and the construct of decision options (with vs. without certain/immediate option) as factors. Thirty-three postgraduate students participated in our study. As we were particularly interested in two pairs of decision rules, i.e., compensatory/non-compensatory rules and alternative-based/attribute-based rules, we included a series of decision attributes that reflected them, based on the local and holistic process characteristics derived from eye-movement data to test our hypotheses. Our entire set of analyses aimed to (1) determine whether the decision processes of RC and IC are similar and (2) identify the best computational model that is more suitable for both decisions. For the first aim, results show that RC and IC indeed share comparable decision processes, albeit having a few differences in other aspects. Specifically, RC and IC differ in process characteristics, such as complexity and holistic eye-movement dynamics, and IC is processed in a relatively more deliberate, deeper fashion than RC. However, they are similar in other characteristics, such as search direction, which is more relevant to making decisions. For the second aim, computational modeling of process characteristics suggests that both types of decisions are consistent with non-discounting models. In particular, results of search direction, in light of Bayesian model comparison, reveals that participants are more likely to follow the non-compensatory, attribute-based rule rather than the alternative-based/attribute-based rule when deciding for both RC and IC. Furthermore, different task constructs of decision options, i.e., with or without certain/immediate option, show distinct process characteristics, such as direction, complexity, and depth in both RC and IC.To conclude, the present study shows that although differences exist between RC and IC, they indeed have shared cognitive mechanisms at the core of the decision processes. In both types of decisions, contrary to classic discounting models, individuals seem not to follow compensatory, attribute-based rules, which undergoes a “weighting and summing” or “delay discounting” process. Instead, they are more likely to use simple heuristic rules hypothesized by non-discounting models. Moreover, when including certain or immediate options, individuals tend to follow less compensatory and non-dominant (neither attribute-based nor alternative-based) rules. In sum, our findings not only provide a theoretical and empirical basis for the establishment of a common framework for RC and IC, but also provide a novel direction for thorough theoretical and methodological comparisons between variant decision tasks.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Cooperation plays an essential role in the development and survival of humans. Previous research suggests that experiencing negative emotional events typically decreases cooperation. Yet the research has primarily focused on experiencing negative emotional events alone. People living in a social environment often co-experience negative emotional events with others. Less understood is the impact of co-experiencing the same negative events on interpersonal cooperation. The present research hypothesized that 1) co-experiencing the same negative emotional events (i.e., failure) increases cooperation between co-experiencers compared with experiencing negative emotional events alone; 2) the need to belong mediates the relationship between those co-experiencing negative emotional events and their cooperation. Four experiments were conducted to examine the two hypotheses.In Experiments 1-3, the negative emotional events were manipulated either by failing in a lottery (Experiment 1) or in the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (Experiment 2 and 3), and the cooperation was measured by a public goods game. The results of the three experiments showed that co-experiencing a negative emotional event promoted cooperation between the co-experiencers compared with experiencing the negative emotional event alone. Furthermore, to examine the underlying mechanism of this effect, three possible mediator variables, the need to belong, social bonds, and common in-group identity, were also measured in Experiment 2. The results showed that the need to belong, but not social bonds or common in-group identity, mediated the relationship between co-experiencing a negative emotional event (i.e., failure) and the promoted cooperation. In Experiment 3, the need to belong was manipulated rather than measured to further examine its effect on the increased cooperation between the co-experiencers. The results showed that when the need to belong was satisfied, the participants who co-experienced the negative emotional event did not behave more cooperatively than when they experienced the emotional event alone. Experiment 4 investigated whether people would be more willing to cooperate when they co-experienced the same negative emotional events compared with when they experienced different negative emotional events or when they experienced the negative emotional events alone. The results showed that only the participants who co-experienced the same negative emotional event, but not those who co-experienced a different negative emotional event, were more likely to cooperate than when they experienced the emotional event alone. The implication of the present findings on the formation of small groups and enhancing group cohesion was discussed.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： This paper investigated the structure and function of interactive naturalness through three studies. After command-line interaction and graphic interaction, natural interactions have increased and become mainstream. In measuring interactive experience, the traditional usability standard is not enough to measure the usability and naturality of product interaction. The possible reason is that natural interaction is no longer limited to the product's features but is more concerned with the human experience (the perceived naturalness) or natural experience. A direct, reliable measurement tool is urgently needed to evaluate the natural experience. Most studies used traditional usability dimensions such as visibility and ease of use to simply measure naturalness. But if naturalness simply equals usability, then many traits beyond product usability cannot be measured. Some studies directly measured naturalness with a single item or synonyms of naturalness, but the reliability of these measurements is not enough. This paper aimed to develop and verify a conceptually solid and quantitatively validated scale to measure the naturalness of interaction. In Study 1, a comprehensive item set related to the concept of natural interaction was established by using qualitative methods including dictionary retrieval, literature review, and expert interviews. In Study 2, participants (n = 353) were recruited to evaluate the experience of different intelligent connected vehicles. In addition to the interactive naturalness scale, several key consumer behaviors and traditional usability criteria, including drive intention, satisfaction, and usability, were also collected. In Study 3, new samples (n = 349) and more criterion-related variables (two key consumption behaviors were added, namely perceived loyalty and recommendation intention) were used to further verify the validity and reliability of the developed measurement tool. We used SPSS 25.0 and Jamovi 1.2.27 to analyze the data. According to Study 1, the naturalness of the interactive experience scale of 9 items was developed based on the qualitative research. In Study 2, the exploratory factor analysis found that the two-dimensional model (six items for joyful fluency and three items for universal awareness) best suited the data. Confirmatory factor analysis verified the stability of the two-factor model. Correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis suggested that these two components had good criterion-related validity and joyful fluency played a crucial role in predicting satisfaction and drive intention. In Study 3, a new sample (n = 349) was used to validate the validity of the scale further. And the validity of the scale was further verified in Study 3. The criterion-related variables used in Study 2 also obtained the same correlation and regression results in Study 3. Two factors of interactive naturalness had a significant predictive effect on the newly included variables, namely recommendation intention and perceived loyalty. In addition, joyful fluency was more related to basic vehicle functions, while universal awareness was more related to advanced intelligent interaction functions. This study explored the structure and function of interactive naturalness. A psychometrically sound tool was obtained to measure the interactive naturalness experience of intelligent products in two dimensions: joyful fluency and universal awareness. We found that interactive naturalness is strongly linked to key experiential and post-purchase dimensions and has an additional contribution to predicting these variables that traditional usability dimensions cannot include. This finding was also supported by the difference of correlation between two factors in different vehicle functions. These results indicate that the scale developed in this study can measure the natural interaction experience of intelligent products reliably and effectively. This tool can be used in future human-computer interaction research and guidance for interface and product design.
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